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- Essay Name : 1228.txt
- Uploader : John Feldersnatch
- Email Address :
- Language : English
- Subject : Biology
- Title : Wolf Predations
- Grade : 96 %
- School System : University of Pittsburgh
- Country : USA
- Author Comments : Lots of Research. I really outdid myself on this one!
- Teacher Comments : She said that it put me up to an A for the semester..
- Date : December 1, 1995
- Site found at : Through a friend at CMU.
- --------------------------------------------------------------
- Hypotheses of the Effects of
- Wolf Predation
-
- John Feldersnatch
- December 1st, 1995
-
- Abstract: This paper discusses four hypotheses to explain the effects of wolf predation on prey populations of large ungulates.
- The four proposed hypotheses examined are the predation limiting hypothesis, the predation regulating hypothesis, the predator
- pit hypothesis, and the stable limit cycle hypothesis. There is much research literature that discusses how these hypotheses can
- be used to interpret various data sets obtained from field studies. It was concluded that the predation limiting hypothesis fit
- most study cases, but that more research is necessary to account for multiple predator - multiple prey relationships.
-
- The effects of predation can have an enormous impact on the ecological organization and structure of communities. The
- processes of predation affect virtually every species to some degree or another. Predation can be defined as when members of
- one species eat (and/or kill) those of another species. The specific type of predation between wolves and large ungulates
- involves carnivores preying on herbivores. Predation can have many possible effects on the interrelations of populations. To
- draw any correlations between the effects of these predator-prey interactions requires studies of a long duration, and statistical
- analysis of large data sets representative of the populations as a whole. Predation could limit the prey distribution and decrease
- abundance. Such limitation may be desirable in the case of pest species, or undesirable to some individuals as with game
- animals or endangered species. Predation may also act as a major selective force. The effects of predator prey coevolution can
- explain many evolutionary adaptations in both predator and prey species.
-
- The effects of wolf predation on species of large ungulates have proven to be controversial and elusive. There have been many
- different models proposed to describe the processes operating on populations influenced by wolf predation. Some of the
- proposed mechanisms include the predation limiting hypothesis, the predation regulating hypothesis, the predator pit
- hypothesis, and the stable limit cycle hypothesis (Boutin 1992). The purpose of this paper is to assess the empirical data on
- population dynamics and attempt to determine if one of the four hypotheses is a better model of the effects of wolf predation
- on ungulate population densities.
-
- The predation limiting hypothesis proposes that predation is the primary factor that limits prey density. In this non- equilibrium
- model recurrent fluctuations occur in the prey population. This implies that the prey population does not return to some
- particular equilibrium after deviation. The predation limiting hypothesis involves a density independent mechanism. The
- mechanism might apply to one prey - one predator systems (Boutin 1992). This hypothesis predicts that losses of prey due to
- predation will be large enough to halt prey population increase.
-
- Many studies support the hypothesis that predation limits prey density. Bergerud et al. (1983) concluded from their study of
- the interrelations of wolves and moose in the Pukaskwa National Park that wolf predation limited, and may have caused a
- decline in, the moose population, and that if wolves were eliminated, the moose population would increase until limited by
- some other regulatory factor, such as food availability. However, they go on to point out that this upper limit will not be
- sustainable, but will eventually lead to resource depletion and population decline. Seip (1992) found that high wolf predation
- on caribou in the Quesnel Lake area resulted in a decline in the population, while low wolf predation in the Wells Gray
- Provincial Park resulted in a slowly increasing population. Wolf predation at the Quesnel Lake area remained high despite a
- fifty percent decline in the caribou population, indicating that mortality due to predation was not density-dependent within this
- range of population densities. Dale et al. (1994), in their study of wolves and caribou in Gates National Park and Preserve,
- showed that wolf predation can be an important limiting factor at low caribou population densities, and may have an
- anti-regulatory effect. They also state that wolf predation may affect the distribution and abundance of caribou populations.
- Bergerud and Ballard (1988), in their interpretation of the Nelchina caribou herd case history, said that during and immediately
- following a reduction in the wolf population, calf recruitment increased, which should result in a future caribou population
- increase. Gasaway et al. (1983) also indicated that wolf predation can sufficiently increase the rate of mortality in a prey
- population to prevent the population's increase. Even though there has been much support of this hypothesis, Boutin (1992)
- suggests that "there is little doubt that predation is a limiting factor, but in cases where its magnitude has been measured, it is no
- greater than other factors such as hunting."
-
- A second hypothesis about the effects of wolf predation is the predation regulating hypothesis, which proposes that predation
- regulates prey densities around a low-density equilibrium. This hypothesis fits an equilibrium model, and assumes that following
- deviation, prey populations return to their pre-existing equilibrium levels. This predator regulating hypothesis proposes that
- predation is a density-dependent mechanism affecting low to intermediate prey densities, and a density-independent
- mechanism at high prey densities.
-
- Some research supports predation as a regulating mechanism. Messier (1985), in a study of moose near Quebec, Canada,
- draws the conclusion that wolf-ungulate systems, if regulated naturally, stabilize at low prey and low predator population
- densities. In Messier's (1994) later analysis, based on twenty-seven studies where moose were the dominant prey species of
- wolves, he determined that wolf predation can be density-dependent at the lower range of moose densities. This result
- demonstrates that predation is capable of regulating ungulate populations. Even so, according to Boutin (1992) more studies
- are necessary, particularly at high moose densities, to determine if predation is regulatory.
-
- A third proposal to model the effects of wolf predation on prey populations is the predator pit hypothesis. This hypothesis is a
- multiple equilibria model. It proposes that predation regulates prey densities around a low-density equilibrium. The prey
- population can then escape this regulation once prey densities pass a certain threshold. Once this takes place, the population
- reaches an upper equilibrium. At this upper equilibrium, the prey population densities are regulated by competition for (and or
- availability of) food. This predator pit hypothesis assumes that predator losses are density-dependent at low prey densities, but
- inversely density-dependent at high prey densities. Van Ballenberghe (1985) states that wolf population regulation is needed
- when a caribou herd population declines and becomes trapped in a predator pit, wherein predators are able to prevent caribou
- populations from increasing.
-
- The final model that attempts to describe the effects of predation on prey populations is the stable limit cycle hypothesis. This
- hypothesis proposes that vulnerability of prey to predation depends on past environmental conditions. According to this theory,
- individuals of a prey population born under unfavorable conditions are more vulnerable to predation throughout their adult lives
- than those born under favorable conditions. This model would produce time lags between the proliferation of the predator and
- the prey populations, in effect generating recurring cycles. Boutin (1992) states that if this hypothesis is correct, the effects of
- food availability (or the lack of) should be more subtle than outright starvation. Relatively severe winters could have long- term
- effects by altering growth, production, and vulnerability. Thompson and Peterson (1988) reported that there are no
- documented cases of wolf predation imposing a long-term limit on ungulate populations independent of environmental
- influences. They also point out that summer moose calf mortality was high whether predators were present or not, and that
- snow conditions during the winter affected the vulnerability of calves to predation. Messier (1994) asserts that snow
- accumulation during consecutive winters does not create a cumulative impact on the nutritional status of deer and moose.
-
- All of the four proposed theories mentioned above could describe the interrelationships between the predation of wolves and
- their usual north american prey of large ungulate species. There has been ample evidence presented in the primary research
- literature to support any one of the four potential models. The predation limiting hypothesis seems to enjoy wide popular
- support, and seems to most accurately describe most of the trends observed in predator-prey populations. Most researchers
- seem to think that more specific studies need to be conducted to find an ideal model of the effects of predation. Bergerud and
- Ballard (1988) stated "A simple numbers argument regarding prey:predator ratios overlooks the complexities in
- multi-predator-prey systems that can involve surplus killing, additive predation between predators, enhancement and
- interference between predator species, switch over between prey species, and a three-fold variation in food consumption rates
- by wolves." Dale et al. (1994) stated that further knowledge of the factors affecting prey switching, such as density-dependent
- changes in vulnerability within and between prey species, and further knowledge of wolf population response is needed to
- draw any firm conclusions. Boutin (1992) also proposed that the full impact of predation has seldom been measured because
- researchers have concentrated on measuring losses of prey to wolves only. Recently, bear predation on moose calves has
- been found to be substantial, but there are few studies which examine this phenomenon (Boutin 1992). Messier (1994) also
- pointed out that grizzly and black bears may be important predators of moose calves during the summer. Seip (1992), too,
- states that bear predation was a significant cause of adult caribou mortality. These points emphasize that multiple-predator and
- multiple-prey systems are probably at work in the natural environment, and we must not over generalize a one predator - one
- prey hypothesis in the attempt to interpret the overall trends of the effects of predation of wolves on large ungulate populations.
-
- Literature Cited
- Bergerud, A. T., W. Wyett, and B. Snider. 1983. The role of wolf predation in limiting a moose population. Journal of
- Wildlife Management. 47(4): 977-988.
- Bergerud, A. T., and W. B. Ballard. 1988. Wolf predation on caribou: the Nelchina herd case history, a different
- interpretation. Journal of Wildlife Management. 52(2): 344- 357.
- Boutin, S.. 1992. Predation and moose population dynamics: a critique. Journal of Wildlife Management. 56(1): 116-
- 127.
- Dale, B. W., L. G. Adams, and R. T. Bowyer. 1994. Functional response of wolves preying on barren-ground caribou
- in a multiple prey ecosystem. Journal of Animal Ecology. 63: 644- 652.
- Gasaway, W. C., R. O. Stephenson, J. L. Davis, P. E. K. Shepherd, and O. E. Burris. 1983. Interrelationships of
- wolves, prey, and man in interior Alaska. Wildlife Monographs. 84: 1- 50.
- Messier, F.. 1985. Social organization, spatial distribution, and population density of wolves in relation to moose
- density. Canadian Journal of Zoology. 63: 1068-1077.
- Messier, F.. 1994. Ungulate population models with predation: a case study with the North American moose. Ecology.
- 75(2): 478-488.
- Seip, D.. 1992. Factors limiting woodland caribou populations and their interrelationships with wolves and moose in
- southeastern British Colombia. Canadian Journal of Zoology. 70: 1494-1503.
- Thompson, I. D., and R. O. Peterson. 1988. Does wolf predation alone limit the moose population in Pukaskwa Park?:
- a comment. Journal of Wildlife Management. 52(3): 556-559.
- Van Ballenberghe, V.. 1985. Wolf predation on caribou: the Nelchina herd case history. Journal of Wildlife
- Management. 49(3): 711-720.
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-